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Samuel (Shmuel) Polyakov (also PoliakoffPoliakovRussian: Самуил Соломонович Поляков) was a Russian businessman, informally known as the "most famous railroad king"[1] of the Russian Empire, the senior member of the Polyakov business family, a philanthropist and a Jewish civil rights activist, co-founder of World ORT. Polyakov's business interests concentrated in southern Russia and Ukraine. By the time of his sudden death at the age of 50 he was credited with the construction of one quarter of Russia's railroads,[2] his personal net worth was estimated at 31.4 million roubles.[3]

 

Business career

Samuel and his brothers, future bankers Lazar Polyakov and Yakov Polyakov, were born in a small trader's family in Dubroŭna,[4] in the Belarusian part of the Russian Empire. Samuel helped Yakov, the elder brother, in running father's business in alcohol tax farming, but after the emancipation reform of 1861 this opportunity dwindled, and Samuel started his own construction business. According to Sergei Witte (connected to Polyakov's business interests prior to his move into government service),[5] Samuel Polyakov started his business empire as a proprietor of private postal station in Kharkov Governorate in Ukraine. Polyakov performed "some kind of important services" for the Minister for Posts and Telegraphs Ivan Tolstoy, later handled Tolstoy's business interests on a regular basis, and in return "Tolstoy launched Polyakov on his career".[1]

This type of relationship between statesmen and Jewish entrepreneurs was common in post-emancipation Russia; Tolstoy by the time of his death (1867) allegedly owned half a million roubles in Polyakov shares.[6] "Services" mentioned by Witte actually were running a vodka distillery on wastelands of Tolstoy's estate,[7] and the "launch" was granted as a contract to build the Grushovka-Aksay local rail line, owned by the Don Cossack Host and completed in 1863.[7] In 1863–1865 Polyakov performed construction subcontracts for the railroad "king" Karl von Meck. Finally, in 1866 Tolstoy rewarded Polyakov with a contract to build the Kozlov-Voronezh-Rostov-on-Don mainline railroad (commissioned in February 1868).[8] Polyakov made himself rich charging the state 75 thousand roubles per verst of track, eight times above actual cost.[7] This line was followed by Kursk-Kharkiv-Azov line, Gryazi-Oryol line and others.

Polyakov pioneered fast-track railroad construction schedules, introducing new standards of project management promoted by his new ally in the government, minister Pavel Melnikov. Kursk-Kharkiv-Azov mainline (780 verst, commissioned in two stages in July and December 1869) was built in a record time of 22 months; it provided the first reliable rail link for Donets Basin coal mines where Polyakov had substantial interests.[7] He also acquired a concession to build a steel foundry in Azov, but eventually preferred to sell the rights to John Hughes.[7][9] During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) Polyakov was commissioned to build two frontline railroads, Bendery-Galaţi and Frăteşti-Zimnicea. Actual construction was managed by Mikhail Danilov. The speed of building these railroads earned Polyakov a medal of the Paris World Exhibition of 1878 and over 20 million roubles from the government,[7][10] including a 4.5 million time bonus.[2]

As a result, in the 1870s Samuel joined the ring of Russia's seven top railroad barons.[11] These were three converted Jews[dubious – discuss] - Polyakov himself, Bloch and Kronenberg; former tax farmers Pyotr Gubonin and Vasily Kokorev, former state executive Derviz and former engineer Karl von Meck[11] (succeeded in 1873 by his widow Nadezhda von Meck). Rise of the "kings" was made possible by the government's preference for private ownership of the railroads and generous support to railroad entrepreneurs.[11] The state unconditionally guaranteed bond issues by railroad companies, ensuring steady flow of new investors; during the concession period, the owner-operator was entitled to all the profits of the venture.[7] This practice was terminated by the war of 1877–1878; instead, government opted for direct ownership and control of new railroads.[7]

In addition to newly built roads, Polyakov acquired existing ones, including Russia's first commercial railroad from Saint Petersburg to Tsarskoye Selo (purchased in 1880).[7] Although his railroads were set up as public corporations, he managed them as his own property. None of his brothers or children had shares or influence in Polyakov's companies.[12] Polyakov's financial maneuvers, although legal, were questionable. His first mainline railroad (Kozlov-Voronezh) was technically set up as a zemstvo (municipal) venture, but all shares were issued to Polyakov alone. The corporate charter was approved a whole year after the railroad commenced operations, providing Polyakov time to evade accountability to other shareholders.[8] Polyakov used his "enrepreneurial expertise" to amass shares of other railroads which he used as a collateral against loans from foreign bankers, betting on the expected rise in share value.[8][13] Polyakov the contractor artificially inflated costs of railroad construction in return for bribes to state officials, usually paid with railroad shares.[14] Rival railroad contractor Fedor Chizhov summarized Polyakov's reputation as: "Not for any amount of money will I go into business with Polyakov, and I will not soil my name".[8]

Samuel Polyakov's Saint Peterburg home was the former Countess Laval palace at 4, English Embankment, a four-storey neoclassical landmark designed by Thomas de Thomon; in the 1820s-1830s the building housed literary salons attended by Vasily ZhukovskyAlexander Pushkin and Adam Mickiewicz.[15] Polyakov retained the original neoclassical interiors intact; after him it passed to his son Daniel and was eventually bought by the state for the Governing Senate offices.[4] Polyakov acquired nobility and the rank of privy councilor but failed to reach coveted baron's title.[2]

Public activities

Polyakov was credited with donating three million roubles to public education, starting with the college for railroad trades established in Yelets in 1867.[2] In 1868 he co-sponsored opening of the Katkov College in Moscow,[6] an institution that eventually evolved into the present-day Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In the last decade of his life Polyakov concentrated on the life of Saint Petersburg Jewish community, and co-financed construction of the Grand Choral Synagogue.[4] Shortly before the murder of Alexander II Polyakov, Horace Günzburg and Nikolai Bakst succeeded in securing royal approval to establish the Society for Crafts and Agricultural Labor[16] (Russian: Общество Ремесленного Труда, ОРТ), a national Jewish interest group which eventually grew into World ORTnetwork.[17] Its initial purpose was to train Jews in work crafts, creating skilled workforce for the needs of rapidly developing capitalism inside the Pale of Settlement.[18]

The assassination of Alexander on March 1, 1881 provoked a wave of pogroms. In August 1881 Polyakov and Horace Günzburg organized the first conference of Jewish representatives from all over the Empire, searching for a strategy of actions for the Russian Jews.[17] These and other conferences that followed adopted a negative attitude to Jewish emigration in favor of emancipation. Poliakov subscribed to the "standard emancipationist argument", that promoting emigration will do more harm for the Jews, as it gave antisemites a perfect reason to treat the remaining Jews as "irrevocable aliens".[17]

Death and legacy

Polyakov suddenly died of a stroke[6] at the age of 50 during a funeral ceremony for Anton (Abram) Warshawsky (Warshawsky's son Leon was married to Polyakov's daughter).[6] He was buried in a family vault at Saint Peterburg's Jewish Cemetery.[19] Admiral Ivan Shestakov recalled that "... apart from the Tsar's funeral, I never happened to see such a mass of people as attended Polyakov's funeral".[20] The cemetery still stands but Polyakov vault has been destroyed.[21]The tomb of Samuel Polyakov by Mark Antokolski was salvaged and placed in the Russian Museum collection.[21] Another statue of Polyakov by Antokolski is on display in the Museum of Arts in Saratov, one of the many institutions sponsored by Polyakov.[22]

Lazar and Yakov Polyakov survived Samuel and eventually lost their fortunes during the banking crisis of the early 1900s. Daniel, Samuel's only son, assumed his father's chair in the ORT board[4] but was not interested in continuing his father's business and lived most his life in Paris.[1] Samuel's three daughters married Russian, English, and French bankers.[7]

Samuel Polyakov was posthumously blamed for the Borki train disaster that occurred two months after his death on the tracks of Kursk-Kharkiv line. The public, enraged by the accident that nearly destroyed the House of Romanov, connected mismanagement of the Kursk-Kharkiv-Azov railroad to Polyakov and, particularly, "credited" him with substandard, too thin gravel ballast pads that failed to cushion track vibrations as they were supposed to.[14]

Polyakov's railroad ventures of the Russian-Turkish war period provide the principal setting for The Engineers (Russian: Инженеры), a novel by Nikolai Garin-Mikhailovsky published in 1907.[23] Garin died leaving the book incomplete; it was prepared for print by Maxim Gorky. Polyakov, "a small ageing gentleman in a bowler hat",[24] appears in the book in person only once, leaving the protagonist disgusted and wishing to quit work for Polyakov forever.[25] Mikhail Danilov, Polyakov's project manager, is a key supporting character of the plot.

References

  1. Jump up to:a b c Witte, pages 58
  2. Jump up to:a b c d Pashkeyev, Sergey (2005). "Samuil Polyakov" (in Russian). business.ua.
  3. ^ Anan'ich 1991, chapter 4: total of 31, 425, 546 roubles identified during estate proceedings included 30, 895, 333 roubles in shares, 532, 050 roubles in real estate and only 894 roubles in cash.
  4. Jump up to:a b c d Beizer,.Gilbert, pages 59
  5. ^ Prior to the Borki train disaster Witte managed the Kursk-Kharkiv railroad where Polyakov had a substantial share but no direct control
  6. Jump up to:a b c d Anan'ich 1991, chapter 4
  7. Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j "Polyakovy (Поляковы)" (in Russian).
  8. Jump up to:a b c d Owen, pages 172
  9. ^ The sale could be construed as a breach of contract: construction of the mill was part of his concession obligations — Pashkeyev.
  10. ^ The contract, apart from two rail lines, included rolling stock, river ferry crossing, setting up field hospitals etc.
  11. Jump up to:a b c Witte, pages 55
  12. ^ Anan'ich 1991, chapter 6, based this conclusion on an analysis of Polyakov's will
  13. ^ The same practice caused collapse of Lazar Polyakov's banking conglomerate
  14. Jump up to:a b Owen, pages 173
  15. ^ Beizer, Gilbert, pages 57-58
  16. ^ English translation as in Beizer, Gilbert pages 293
  17. Jump up to:a b c Stanislawski, pages 171
  18. ^ Beizer, Gilbert, pages 131
  19. ^ See map of the Jewish Cemetery provided in Beizer, Gilbert p. XXXV
  20. ^ Russian: "Могу свидетельствовать только, что кроме царских похорон, мне никогда не случалось видеть такой массы народа, как на проводах Полякова." - Anan'ich, chapter 4
  21. Jump up to:a b Beizer, Gilbert, pages 201
  22. ^ Vodonos, Ye. I. (2004). "Iz nachalnoy istorii muzeya (Из начальной истории музея)" (in Russian). Saratov State University.
  23. ^ Garin-Mikhailovsky, Nikolai (1907). Inzhenery (Инженеры) (in Russian)., chapter XVI
  24. ^ Russian: "маленький пожилой господин в котелке" - Garin, chapter XVI
  25. ^ Russian: "И зачем он оторвал меня от работы? Мало у него свиты и без меня? Сколько в них, начиная с самого шефа, чванства!" - Garin, chapter XVI

Sources[edit]

English edition: Brumfield, Anan'ich, Petrov (editors) (2002). Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861-1914. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6750-7.


Lazar Solomonovich Polyakov (Russian: Ла́зарь Соломо́нович Поляко́в, born 1843 in Dubroŭna – died 1914) was a Russian-Jewish entrepreneur. Polyakov founded his first bank in 1872 and by the 1890s owned an influential financial group; he was informally named "Rothschild of Moscow". His business collapsed in the early 1900s and was completely disbanded by 1909.

Lazar and his brothers, future railroad magnate Samuel Polyakov and banker Yakov Polyakov, were born into the family of a small trader in Dubroŭna. His family was Jewish. Lazar remained in the shadow of his better-known brother and employer Samuel until 1872, when he founded L. S. Polyakov Bank in Moscow.[1]

In the 1870s and 1880s Polyakov founded five more commercial banks (in Moscow, OryolSaint Petersburg and Odessa) and two mortgage banks (Moscow, Yaroslavl). He remained the principal shareholder and manager of these banks until their collapse in the 1900s. The group also included insurance and trading companies. The assets of his top level holding companies were valued at 40 million roubles, mostly in the stock of his own enterprises.[1]

Polyakov created wealth through stock exchange deals and trading in Ukrainian and Southern Russian wheat. His business rarely ventured into the textiles, metalworking and real estate that were the fields of traditional Moscow bankers.[1] However, the Jewish sources point at the rivalry between Polyakov and ethnic Russian bankers represented by the mayor of Moscow Nikolay Alekseyev. This competition allegedly influenced the deportation of Jews of 1891–1892.[2]

Polyakov's continuing practice of relying on the inflated value of his own stock used as collateral contributed to his own demise. It started with Yakov Polyakov's bank problems in 1898. Then in 1901 Yakov's Peterburg-Azov Bank collapsed beyond recovery. Recession of the 1900s brought the stock prices down. Polyakov defaulted on his loans and his banks folded one by one. The Ministry of Finance, fearing a domino effect bank run, initially supported Polyakov's banks. However, as the crisis developed the banker himself became an obstacle to restructuring.

In 1909 the Ministry of Finance took over the last three surviving banks and consolidated them into a new United Bank (Russian: Соединённый Банк). The three banks declared 25 million roubles in assets of which 17.5 million were written off as bad debt.[1] United Bank was chaired by an ethnic Russian appointed by the government, while Polyakov's son Alexander retained a seat on the board of directors.

In the end, Lazar's own finances were ruined to the extent that his own sons refused to take up his debt-ridden estate upon his death.[4]

Lazar Polyakov remained the leader of Moscow Jewish community for 35 years, and has been the main sponsor of Moscow Choral Synagogue. Prior to its completion in 1906, Polyakov allowed the congregation to pray in his own house. Rebbe Mase said in the funeral eulogy, that "his name is retold in fairytales across the pale of settlement. Our poorer brethren, blessing themselves on their wedding days, say 'Let G-d make you equal to Polyakov'".[4]

References

  •  Brumfield, Anan'ich, Petrov (editors) (2002). Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861-1914. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6750-7.
  • Brumfield, Anan'ich, Petrov (editors) (2001). Predprinimatelstvo i gorodskaya kultura v Rossii 1861-1914 (Предпринимательство и городская культура в России) (in Russian). Tri Kvadrata, Moscow. ISBN 94-6070-110-8.
  • Dubnow, S. M. (1918). "History of Jews in Poland and Russia, vol.2". The Jewish publication society of America, Philadelphia.

Notes

  1. Jump up to:a b c d Brumfield 2001:73
  2. ^ Dubnow, ch.XXIX
  3. ^ Brumfield, 2001:211
  4. Jump up to:a b Brumfield 2001:74

 

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